Organisational Behaviour BBA 301 notes

Organisational Behaviour

BBA 301

Q1. What is organization Behaviour?  Explain the various models of organizational Behaviour.

Ans. OB is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behaviour within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organization’s effectiveness. It is a distinct area of expertise with a common body of knowledge.  It studies 3 determinants of behaviour in organizations: individual, groups and structure. OB is also an applied field.  It applies the knowledge gained about individuals, groups and the effect of structure on behaviour towards the end of making organizations work more effectively. OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organization and how that behaviour affects the performance of the organization. OB includes the core topics of motivation, leader behaviour and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and process, learning, attitude development and perception, interpersonal change and conflict.

Davis has described four OB models which are as follows:

1. Autocratic

2. Custodial

3. Supportive

4. Collegial.

1. Autocratic Model

In the autocratic model, managerial orientation is towards power.  Managers see authority as the only means to get the things done, and employees are expected to follow orders.  The result is high dependence on boss.  This dependence is possible because employees live on the subsistence level.  The organizational process is mostly formalized; the authority is delegated by right of command over people to whom it applies.  The management decides what is the best action for the employees.  The model is largely based on the Theory of X assumptions of McGregor where the human beings are taken inherently distasteful to work and try to avid responsibility.  A very strict and close supervision is required to obtain desirable performance from them.  Likert’s management system can be compared with the model of organizational behaviour.  His system (exploitative authoritative) in which motivation depends on physical security and some use of desire for start and better performance is ensured through fear, threats, punishment, and occasional rewards; communications is mostly one-way, that is downward: there is little interaction between managers and employees.

The autocratic model represents traditional thinking which is based on the economic concept of the man.  With the changing values and aspiration levels of people, this model is yielding place to others.  However, this does not mean that this model is discarded in toto.  In many cases; the autocratic model of organizational behaviour may be a quite useful way to accomplish performance, particularly where the employees can be motivated by physiological needs.  This generally happens at lower strata of the organization.

2. Custodial Model

In the custodial model, the managerial orientation is towards the use of money to play for employee benefits.  The model depends on the economic resources of the organization and its ability to pay for the benefits.  While the employees hope to obtain security, at the same time they become highly dependent on the organization.  An organizational dependence reduces personal dependence on boss.  The employees are able to satisfy their security needs or in the context of Herzberg’s theory only maintenance factors.  These employees working under custodial model feel happy, their level of performance is not very high.  This resembles again to Herzberg’s satisfier and dissatisfier. Since employee are getting adequate regards and organizational security, they feel happy. However, they are not given any authority to decide what benefits or rewards they should get

3. Supportive Model

The supportive model organizational behaviour depends on managerial leadership rather than on the use of power of money.  The aim of managers is to support employees in their achievement of results.  The focus is primarily on participation and involvement of employees in managerial decision-making process.  The model is based on principles of supportive relationship’s of Likert, which is the basic ingredient of his system 4 (participative).  Likert states that, the leadership and other processes of the organization must be such as to ensure a maximum probability that in all interactions and all relationships with the organizations each member will, in the light of his background, values and expectation views the experience as supportive and one which builds and maintains, his sense of personal worth and importance.

It is quite similar to the assumptions of McGregor’s Theory Y.  The supportive model is based on the assumptions that human beings move to the maturity level and they expect the organizational climate which supports this expectation.  Various organizational processes-communication, leadership, decision-making, interaction, control, and influence-are such that, these help employees to fulfil their higher order needs such as esteem and self-actualization. Likert has shown that, supportive model is best suited in the conditions when employees are self-motivated.  Thus, this emphasizes not on the economic resources of the organization but its human aspect.  Manager’s role is to help employees to achieve their work rather than supervising them closely.  This can be applied more fruitfully for higher level managers whose lower order needs are satisfied reasonably.  Organizations with sophisticated technology and employing professional people can also apply this model for getting best out of their human resources.  However, this does not mean that, this model can be applied in all circumstances.

4. Collegial Model

Collegial model is an extension of supportive model.  The term collegial refers to a body of people having common purpose.  Collegial model is based on the team concept in which each employee develops high degree of understanding towards others and shares common goals.  The employee response to this situation is responsibility.  Employees need little direction and control from management.  Control is basically through self discipline by the team members.  The organizational climate is quite conductive to self fulfillment and self-actualization.  Collegial model tends to be more useful with unprogrammed work requiring behavioural flexibility, an intellectual environment, and considerable job freedom. The various models of organizational behaviour are based on the assumption of the human characteristics and how they can work best.  Since situational variables are strong factors in determining the organizational processes, managers cannot assume that a particular model is best suitable for all purposes and for all situations.  Rather all the Organizational Behaviour / 12models will remain in practice and that too with considerable success.  These models are basically constructed around need hierarchy. 

Autocratic	Custodial	Supportive	Collegial
Model Depends on:	Power.	Economic resources.	Leadership.	Partnership.
Managerial orientation:	Authority.	Money.	Support.	Teamwork.
Employee orientation:	Obedience.	Security.	Job performance.	Responsibility.
Employee psychological result:	Dependence on boss.	Dependence on organization.	Participation.	Self-discipline.
Employee needs met:	Subsistence.	Maintenance.	Higher-order.	Self-actualization.
Performance result:	Minimum.	Passive cooperation.	Awakened drives.	Moderate enthusiasm.

Q2. Explain the nature and scope of Organisational Behaviour? What are the various contributing disciplines to the field of OB?

Ans. Organizational behaviour has emerged as a separate field of study. The nature it has acquired is identified as follows :

1. A Separate Field of Study and not a Discipline Only

By definition, a discipline is an accepted science that is based on a theoretical foundation. But, O.B. has a multi-interdisciplinary orientation and is, thus, not based on a specific theoretical background. Therefore, it is better reasonable to call O.B. a separate field of study rather than a discipline only.

2. An Interdisciplinary Approach

Organizational behaviour is essentially an interdisciplinary approach to study human behaviour at work. It tries to integrate the relevant knowledge drawn from related disciplines like psychology, sociology and anthropology to make them applicable for studying and analysing organizational behaviour.

3. An Applied Science

The very nature of O.B. is applied. What O.B. basically does is the application of various researches to solve the organizational problems related to human behaviour. The basic line of difference between pure science and O.B. is that while the former concentrates of fundamental researches, the latter concentrates on applied researches. O.B. involves both applied research and its application in organizational analysis. Hence, O.B. can be called both science as well as art.

4. A Normative Science

Organizational Behaviour is a normative science also. While the positive science discusses only cause effect relationship, O.B. prescribes how the findings of applied researches can be applied to socially accepted organizational goals. Thus, O.B. deals with what is accepted by individuals and society engaged in an organization. Yes, it is not that O.B. is not normative at all. In fact, O.B. is normative as well that is well underscored by the proliferation of management theories.

5. A Humanistic and Optimistic Approach

Organizational Behaviour applies humanistic approach towards people working in the organization. It, deals with the thinking and feeling of human beings. O.B. is based on the belief that people have an innate desire to be independent, creative and productive. It also realizes that people working in the organization can and will actualize these potentials if they are given proper conditions and environment. Environment affects performance or workers working in an organization.

6. A Total System Approach

The system approach is one that integrates all the variables, affecting organizational functioning. The systems approach has been developed by the behavioural scientists to analyse human behaviour in view of his/her socio-psychological framework. Man's socio-psychological framework makes man a complex one and the systems approach tries to study his/her complexity and find solution to it.

Scope of Organizational Behaviour

The three internal organizational elements viz., people, technology and structure and the fourth element, i.e., external social systems may be taken as the scope of O.B.

1. People

The people constitute the internal social system of the organization. They consist of individuals and groups. Groups may be large or small, formal or informal, official or unofficial. They are dynamic. They form, change and disband. Human organization changes everyday. Today, it is not the same as it was yesterday. It may change further in the coming days. People are living, thinking and feeling being who created the organization and try to achieve the objectives and goals. Thus, organizations exist to serve the people and not the people exist to serve the organization.

2. Structure

Structure defines the sole relationship of people in an organization. Different people in an organization are given different roles and they have certain relationship with others. It leads to division of labour so that people can perform their duties or work to accomplish the organizational goal. Thus, everybody cannot be an accountant or a clerk. Work is complex and different duties are to be performed by different people. Some may be accountant, others may be managers, clerks, peons or workers. All are so related to each other to accomplish the goal in a co-ordinated manner. Thus, structure relates to power and duties. One has the authority and others have a duty to obey him.

3. Technology

Technology imparts the physical and economic conditions within which people work. With their bare hands people can do nothing so they are given assistance of buildings, machines, tools, processes and resources. The nature of technology depends very much on the nature of the organization and influences the work or working conditions. Thus, technology brings effectiveness and at the same restricts people in various ways.

4. Social System

Social system provides external environment which the organization operates. A single organization cannot exist also. It is a part of the whole. One organization cannot give everything and therefore, there are many other organizations. All these organizations influence each other. It influences the attitudes of people, their working conditions and above all provides competition for resources and power.

Contributing Disciplines to the field of organizational Behaviour

Organizational behaviour is an applied behavioural science that is built upon contributions from a number of behavioural disciplines. The predominant areas are psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and political science

Psychology

–          Psychology is the science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other animals.

–          To use psychological and organizational theory and research to improve organizational effectiveness and the work life of all individuals. 

–          psychologists concern themselves with studying and attempting to understand individual behaviour

–          learning, perception, personality, emotions, training, leadership effectiveness, needs and motivational forces, job satisfaction, decision-making process, performance appraisals, attitude measurement, employee selection techniques, work design and job stress

Sociology

–          Sociologists study the social system in which individuals fill their roles

–          Sociology studies people in relation to their fellow human beings to improve organizational performance.

–          Study of group behaviour in organisations, group dynamics, design of work teams, organisational culture, formal organisational theory and structure, organisational technology, communications, power and conflict

Social psychology

–          An area within psychology that blends concepts from psychology and sociology and that focuses on the influence of people on one another.

–          Major area: change – how to implement it and how to reduce barriers to its acceptance

–          Study areas: measuring, understanding and changing attitudes, communication patters, building trust, the ways in which group activities can satisfy individual needs, group decision-making processes

Anthropology

–          The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.

–          Study on culture and environment has helped us understand differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behaviour between people in different countries and within different organisations

Political science

–          The study of the behaviour of individuals and groups within a political environment

–          Study areas: structuring of conflicts, allocations of power, how people manipulate power for individual self-interest

Q3. Explain the various theories of Learning in detail.

Ans. Robbins has stressed upon learning as a “relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience”. He has opined on experience only, although an employee might change his behaviour as a result of a social process. Learning is a process of observation, action, reaction and response to some stimuli. Learning is a process of change in behaviour. The outcome of learning is a permanent change in behaviour.

MODELS OF LEARNING

Theories of learning have been developed as models of learning which explain the learning process by which employees acquire a pattern of behaviour. Inborn ability and aptitude to learn new skills and the degree to which the learner participates in the process are considered under models of learning. Some models believe that individuals cannot learn independently. They require the help of experts and personal involvement in the learning process. Other theories believe that employees can learn by observation. Their drive and motives are helpful for the learning process. No one can learn unless they are willing to learn. Employers have to provide adequate opportunities and incentives to employees so that they can get drives for the learning purpose. It is also believed by some theorists that learning is a stimulus - response process. Stimuli are essential for the learning purpose. The stimuli provide understanding and insights to the employees. The learning process helps further learning. Previous learning helps further learning.

CLASSICAL MODEL OF LEARNING

The classical model of learning developed with experience of the material process accompanied with learning stimuli. Pavlov propounded this model. In Indian mythology, some examples have been observed where the learner took the assistance of natural phenomena to make a pupil learn a new process of functions.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, observed that a dog started secreting saliva with the ringing of a bell, as the ringing of the bell was accompanied by the showing a piece of meat to the dog. It is a natural phenomenon that a dog secretes saliva when meat is put before the mouth of dog. If the natural phenomenon known as unconditioned stimulus is accompanied by an artificial phenomenon known as conditioned stimulus, the dog generated a conditioned response ultimately, as the process was repeated constantly. The unconditioned response, i.e. the secreting response, becomes a conditioned response after sometime as the dog learnt that the ringing of a bell meant the availability of meat. 

The classical model of learning believes that the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli would be repeated several times to get the net result of a conditioned stimulus which would be a conditioned response. In the Pavlov theory, the dog learnt to secrete saliva (conditioned response) at the ringing of a bell (conditioned stimulus), after repeatedly performing the functions of unconditioned stimulus (showing meat) and conditioned stimulus (ringing bell) simultaneously. Later on, the unconditioned stimulus was separated from the conditioned stimulus to get a conditioned response. Employees can be conditioned accordingly. The conditioned stimulus may be changed to get the result of second or third conditioned stimulus. Employees can learn the new conditioned stimuli if they are repeatedly given new stimuli along with the old unconditioned stimulus. The monetary incentives are generally accepted as the unconditioned stimuli for motivating employees. If these stimuli are accompanied with non-monetary incentives for some period, employees learn to work hard with non-monetary incentives.

Repeated pairing of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus would result in a conditioned response. Learning car driving is based on stimuli-response (S-R) behaviour where the driver is immediately alerted to a response as he confronts a boy in front of his running car, i.e. conditioned stimulus. Initially he starts with unconditioned (natural) stimuli and later on he develops conditioned (artificial) stimuli. In Indian industries, classical conditioning is an important method of learning when employees start with certain natural phenomena along with an artificial work style to arrive at new methods of working.

OPERANT MODEL OF LEARNING

The operant or instrumental model of learning is a developed form of classical learning, i.e. the S-R link habit. Employees behave in a particular manner because they would like to get a reward (Response). Reward or the desired results acquire certain behaviour traits. Reward creates drives and motives to acquire certain behaviour amongst employees. B. F. Skinner, a Harvard psychologist, propagated operant learning. He argues that behaviour increases and develops to acquire certain benefits. The desired behaviour is the outcome of acquired benefit or reward. Employees do not accept behaviour, which is not rewarded. The reinforcement of behaviour is contingent upon the reward. Employees work hard to get additional benefits. The learning process starts with the reward or response.

Learned employees for the sake of customer satisfaction, employee productivity and shareholder wealth improve corporate functions. The learning takes place for the said responses. The classical conditioning has the stimulus as the beginning of learning, whereas operant learning starts with the response, which becomes a stimulus for the learning process. The reward develops habits, motives and efforts for providing them with stimuli for learning. The employees pay more attention, recognise properly and translate their recognition into behaviour. It is a clear fact that learning starts with reward and performance satisfaction. People do not like to learn a process, which is not rewarded. Behaviour is improved through learning for rewards and benefits. In the absence of a reward and response, behaviour is not shaped, and the learning process does not take place or continue in the future. 

The classical learning process lays emphasis on changing unconditioned stimuli to conditioned stimuli. If the conditioned stimulus has been acquired through the process of pairing with unconditioned stimulus, learning is acquired, as it will give a conditioned response. Operant learning emphasises response, which stimulates learning by changing the present behaviour into the required behaviour.

The S-R connection in classical learning is changed to the R-S connection in operant learning. The reward or response need not be financial. It may be nonfinancial and psychologically satisfying to the employees. The classical theory believes that employees will fulfill their basic and other needs if they work hard or in a learned manner. On contrary, the operant learning theory emphasises that the required learning and behaviour is adopted for getting basic and other needs. A manager works for getting social recognition. He learns to manage efficiently to gain recognition. He learns to manage efficiently to gain recognition and fame. Scientific research and technological development is related to operant learning.

SOCIAL LEARNING MODEL

Employees learn from their surroundings, peers, parents, teachers and other people. They learn socially by observation, and the importance of the perception process has been recognised under the social learning model. Stimuli, attention, retention, reproduction and reinforcement have been accepted as basic components of social learning. Employees pay attention to several social stimuli, which occur in their surroundings. They do not pay attention to all stimuli, but pay attention to only those stimuli, which are attractive, easy to recognise, important and useful. The attended stimuli are recognised and translated by employees. The learning level depends upon how much the recognised stimuli are retained in the mind of employees. The retention process is helpful for storing information. Stimuli, which are translated as useful and satisfactory, must be retained for reproduction and recall purposes. The recall provides reinforcement and behaviour. If rewards are provided, the behaviour will become a habit. The learning process is completed when employees show changes in behaviour, which becomes a habit, i. e. permanent change in behaviour. Social learning includes the socialisation process. It refers to learning through social action, reaction and interaction. The language, customs, functions and performances are the outcome of social, cultural and political phenomena.

Culture and religion are accepted for teaching the new generation about life style and behavioural patterns in society. People observe others and acquire a mental picture of the act and its consequences, which may be reward and punishment. If the consequences are positive and satisfactory as per social norms, people like to imitate and perform with repetition. If people find that the consequences are negative and full of problems, the imitated acts will be rejected. It is not a discrete performance with discrete response consequences. Operant learning is discrete response stimuli whereas social learning is a continuous response stimuli connection.

Modeling is effectively applied for shaping behaviour. It is used for the improvement of human behaviour. The behaviour leads to performance improvement. It is capable of meeting the technical skill requirements. A favourable environment increases the probability of attention and retention. Roleplaying and demonstration is modeled on the target behaviour. The behaviour is acquired as a result of the modeled process of existing behaviour. Continuous intermittent factors help develop behaviour. Modeling procedures have a favourable impact on behaviour and habits.

REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement is the crucial factor in the learning process. This is also known as the method of shaping employees' behaviour. Perception becomes learning only through reinforcement.

Reinforcement is the repeated use of the translated stimuli to induce new behaviour. It increases the strength of response and induces repetitions of the response, which is the outcome of the translated and evaluated stimuli. When reward is attached to behaviour, it becomes a habit. Reinforcement increases the possibility of specific responses occurring in future as a result of evaluated stimuli or uses.

Q4. What is the concept of attitudes? How do attitudes differ from opinions and beliefs? How do attitudes affect behaviour?

Ans. MEANING AND CONCEPT OF ATTITUDES

Krech and Crutchfield define attitude as an enduring organisation of motivational, emotional, perceptual, and cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of the individual's world. Thus, attitudes are beliefs imbued with emotional and motivational properties and are expressed in a person's favourability towards an object. The evaluative nature of attitude is also emphasised by Katz and Scotland when they define attitude as a tendency or predisposition to evaluate an object or symbol of that object in a certain way. Evaluation consists of attributing goodness-badness or desirable-undesirable qualities to an object.  In addition to conceptual approach, there is operational approach in defining the term attitude. The concept of attitude is operationalised in a number of ways; but in most cases, studies rely on some kind of questionnaire to measure attitudes.

ATTITUDE, OPINION AND BELIEF

An opinion is generally the expression of one's judgement of a particular set of  facts or an evaluation of the circumstances presented to him. Thurstone defines opinions as expressions of attitudes. However, Kolasa observes that an opinion is response to a specifically limited stimulus, but the response is certainly influenced by the predisposition with which the individual is operating that is the attitude structure. Undoubtedly, attitudes are basic to opinions as well as to many other aspects of behaviour. Although attitudes tend to be generalised predisposition to  react in some way towards objects or concepts, opinions tend to be focused on more specific aspects of the object or the concept. McCormick and Tiffin observe that the measurement of attitudes is generally based on the expressions of opinions. But we should distinguish between attitude scale like a thermometer or barometer, which reflects the generalized level of individuals’ attitudes towards some object or concept, and opinion survey which typically are used to elicit the opinions of people toward specific aspects of, for example, their work situation. 

A difference can also be made between attitude and belief. A belief is an enduring organisation of perceptions and cognitions about some aspects of individual's world. Thus belief is a hypothesis concerning the nature of objects, more particularly, concerning one’s judgement of the probability regarding their nature.

In this sense, belief is the cognitive component of attitude, which, reflects the manner in which an object is perceived. Kolasa observes that beliefs are stronger than opinions; we hold them more firmly than we do the more changeable evaluations of minor or transitory events represented by opinions. 

ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR 

Attitudes are an important consideration because of their central position in the process transforming work requirements into effort. Attitudes have been thought as serving four functions and thereby affecting the behaviour, as discussed below:

(i) Instrumental: Attitude serves as a means to reach at a desired goal or to avoid an undesired one. Instrumental attitudes are aroused by the activation of a need or cues that are associated with the attitude object and arouse favourable or unfavourable feelings.

(ii) Ego-defensive: The ego-defensive function of attitudes acknowledges the importance of psychological thought. Attitude may be required and maintained to protect the person from facing threats in the external world or from becoming aware of his own unacceptable impulses. Ego-defensive attitudes may be aroused by internal or external threat, frustrating events, appeals or to the build-up or repressed impulses, and suggestions by authoritarian sources. The attitude influences his/her behaviour by affecting his perception of the situation accordingly.

(iii) Value Orientation: The value-orientation function takes into account attitudes that are held because they express a person's values or enhance his self-identity. These attitudes arise by conditions that threaten the selfconcept, appeals to reassert the person's self-image, or by cues that engage the person's values and make them salient to him.

(iv) Knowledge: The knowledge function of attitudes is based on a person's need to maintain a stable, organised and meaningful structure of the world. Attitudes that provide a standard against which a person evaluates aspects of his world serve the knowledge function too. These functions of attitudes affect the individual's way of interpreting the information coming to him. Since attitudes intervene between work requirements and work responses, information about how people feel about their jobs can be quite useful in prediction about work response. Thus these types of attitudes can portray areas of investigation for making the individual and the organisation more compatible.

Q5. Define Personality? What are the various determinants and factors influencing Personality of an individual?

Ans.  According to Gordon Allport, "Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment". Thus, personality embraces all the unique traits and patterns of adjustments of the individual in his relationship with others and his environment. Personality is a process of change and it is related with psychological growth and development of an individual.

According to R.B.Cattel, “Personality is that which predict of what a person will do in a given situation". 

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

The factors, which shape, change or develop the personality of an individual, are discussed as under. These determinants of personality can be classified into following categories:

1. Biological factors: The ways an individual sense the external event data, interpret and respond to them are general biological characteristics of human biological system. The study of biological contribution to personality can be divided into:

a) Heredity:  It is transmission of the qualities from ancestor to descendant through a mechanism lying primarily in the chromosomes of the germ cells. These qualities are present in a person by birth. Heredity refers to those factors like physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition, energy level and biological rhythms etc. that were determined at conception.

b) Brain: It plays very important role in shaping personality. The structure of brain determines personality. People normally say that a person with more number of lines on his brain is more intelligent. Different people will give value to different things. For some beauty is more valuable than intelligence. However, no conclusive proof is available so far about the nature of relationship between brain and personality.

c) Physical Features: Another factor that contributes to personality formation is physical characteristics of an individual. While defining personality some individuals give higher weights to physical features of an individual.. 

2. Family and Social Factors: Family plays an important role in early personality development. The infant acquires those behaviour patterns that depend upon the socio-economic level of the family, family size, birth-order, race, religion, parent education level, geographic location etc. Social factors include the person’s interaction with other people throughout his life. The family and social factors are categorize as below:

a) Home environment: It is a critical factor in personality development. A child will have soft personality if he will grow in a warm, loving and protective environment. And if everybody in the family is busy in their life and have no concern for each other then the infant will have rigid personality. The key variable is not the parents per se rather the type of environment that is generated for the child.

 b) Family Members: Parents and other family members have strong influence on personality development of the child. Parents have more impact than other members of the family do in building the child's personality. We generally see that small children behave like their parents. The relationships between the parents and children are higher then between the children and teachers in building child's personality.

c) Social Group: In addition to home environment and family members, there are other influences from the social placement of the family. Social groups includes the person’s interaction with other people which starts with playmates during childhood and continue with peers at work, associates and other work groups. The internal and external work environment continues to influence the people personalities, perception and behaviour throughout his life. The home environment, family members and social groups influence the socialization and identification process of an individual.

3. Cultural Factors: According to Hoebel, Culture is sum total of learned behaviour traits which are manifested and shared by the members of the society. The culture within which a person is brought up is very important determinant of behaviour of a person. Culture is a unique system of perception, beliefs, values, norms, patterns of behaviour and code of conduct that influence the behaviour of the individual. It determines what a person is and what a person will learn. The way of talking and dressing sense of Hindus and Muslims are entirely different, as they are prone to different cultures. Each culture trains its members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the group.

4. Situational Factors: An individual personality is generally stable and consistent; it may change in different situations. An individual life is unique in terms of events and experience, but these experience sometimes change the structure of the entire personality of an individual. Suppose there is a worker who is very fond of doing work. But sometime due to overload he becomes frustrated from the existing job. Due to this changed situation, his personality composition also changes. Thus demand of different situation may call for different aspects of one’s personality. 

5. Other Factors: a) Temperament It is the degree to which one responds emotionally. It is distributed according to normal distribution

b) Interest: An individual has many interests in various areas. Top executives in any organization do not have common interest. Thus the organization should provide them job rotation and special training programs to satisfy their interest

 c) Character: It means honesty. It is very important requirement for responsible jobs. It is resistance to stealing and cheating others. It is likely that an individual may not steal in normal circumstances, but this can be the demand of undesirable circumstances.

d) Schema: It is an individual’s belief, frame of reference, perception and attitude which the individual possesses towards the management, job, working condition around him, pay scale, fringe benefits, compensation mechanism, development towards religion, government and satisfaction gained from environment. Thus the complete behavior of an individual is dependent upon the external stimuli

 e) Motives: These are the inner drivers of an individual. They represent goal directed behavior of individual. Motives help in determining one’s behavior towards a goal.  Thus, the above factors affect the formation and development of personality. At each stage of the life every individual learns from the environment he lives in and the persons he interacts with. 

PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS/ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCING BEHAVIOUR

 Personality is a set of relatively stable characteristics or dimensions of people that account for consistency in their behavior in various situations. Some of the important personality factors or dimensions that determine what kind of performance will be achieved or what kind of behavior is exhibited at work are:  

1. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem: Self-Concept is the way individuals define themselves as so who they are and drive their sense of identity. Self-esteem is the degree of respect; liking or disliking an individual has for him. It is a measure of self confidence and respect for one’s abilities and motivation. It denotes the extent to which an individual regards himself as capable, successful, important and worthy. People with high self esteem are very friendly, affectionate, find it easy to form interpersonal attachment and find good in other people. They tend to take on more challenging assignment and contribute significantly to their organization if the organization rewards them suitably for their efforts. They are high performers. Low self-esteem people are usually critical of others, are generally depressed and blame others for their own failure. They contribute to poor performance, which in turn leads to low self-esteem. 

2. Authoritarianism: A closely related term to authoritarian is “dogmatism” which refers to the rigidity of a person’s beliefs. Authoritarianism refers to blind acceptance of authority. Authoritarian people believe in obedience and respect for authority. They believe that there should be status and power differences among people in organization. The individual with high authoritarian personality is intellectually rigid, judgmental of others, deferential to those above and exploitative of those below, distrustful and resistant to change. Where the job demands sensitivity to feelings of others, tact and ability to adapt the complex and changing situations, the persons with high-authoritarian personality would be negatively related to performance. 

3. Need Patterns: Every individual have needs for achievement, affiliation, autonomy and dominance at work. People with : a) High need for achievement engage themselves totally in work in order to feel proud about their achievements and success. b) High need for affiliation work with great co-operation with others. c) High need for autonomy prefers to work in the environment where the supervision is less. d) High need for dominance is effective in an environment where they can enforce their legitimate authority.

4. Bureaucratic Personality: This kind of persons has respect for rules and regulations. Thus, on this account it differentiates from authoritarian person whose respect for authority is blind. Bureaucratic persons are not innovative; even not ready to take risk and they keep themselves at ease while following other directions. They value subordination, rules, conformity, impersonal and formal relationship. In the routine and repetitive work they are better supervisors. 

5. Machiavellianism: It refers to manipulation of others as a primary way of achieving one’s goals and gaining and keeping control of others. The extent to which an individual is Machiavellian is measured by Mach Scale. People with high score on mach scale have high self-confidence and self esteem. They are cool and calculating, logical in assessing the system around them. They have no hesitation in using others or taking advantage of others in order to serve their own goals, willing to twist and turn facts to influence others and try to gain control of people, event and situation by manipulating the system to their advantage. As they thoughtfully and logically approach their situation, they are skilled in influencing others. They are successful in exploiting structured situations and vulnerable people.  

6. Tolerance for ambiguity: Because of rapid changes an individual have to work in an environment which is full of uncertainty. They should develop high level of tolerance for ambiguity. People or managers with high tolerance level of ambiguity can work effectively without much stress. But the people with low tolerance for ambiguity can work effectively in structured work setting but it is difficult for them to work in changed conditions. 

7. Locus of control: It is the extent to which individual believe that they control their own lives or external forces control their lives. In other words, the degree to which people believe that they are masters of their own fate. The individual with ‘internal locus of control’ believes that he is master of his own destiny. He believes that his internal traits determine what happens in a given situation and he controls events concerning his own life. The person with this kind of personality seeks opportunities for advancement and relies more on their ability and judgement at work. The study proves that the persons with internal locus of control are highly confident. They use their own wisdom and energy while working on any projects.  The individual with ‘external locus of control’ tends to believe that events occur purely by chance and because of the factors beyond their control. They feel that the outside forces are affecting the events in his life and the individual is at the mercy of destiny, chance or other people. The person with this kind of personality are generally in active and allow the events occur own their own.  

8. Risk Taking: This shows the willingness of individual to take or avoid risk. It shows how long a manager take to make a decision and how much information he requires before taking a decision. High-risk taker takes rapid decision with less available information. The propensity to assume risk is dependent upon the nature of job. An accountant performing auditing activities should be risk averse; on the other hand in the expectation of higher return a high risk-taking propensity results high performance for a stock trader‘s brokerage firm. As a general saying is higher the risk, higher the return.

Q6. Define Perception and explain the factors which influence the Perception process?

Ans. DEFINITION OF PERCEPTION

Perception may be defined as “a cognitive process by which people attend to incoming stimuli, organise and interpret such stimuli into behaviour”. Perception can also be defined as “a process by which individuals organise and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment”.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PERCEPTION PROCESS

There is no doubt that stimuli play a significant role in the perception process as various factors relating to the perception process have been noticed by behavioural experts. The factors influencing perceptions are the perceiver's characteristics, object and situations. However, they can be analysed under specific heads such as the perceiver's characteristics, personal factors, internal factors, organisational structures and social conditions.

1.      PERCEIVER'S CHARACTERISTICS

 Perception depends on how an individual views the objects and situations. Perceptions of the object are influenced not only by individual's characteristics but also by the characteristics of other employees, the manager's personality and employee's views from their perception of the workplace. The characteristics of employees, viz. attitude, motives, interests, habits, experience, expectations, learning and personality have a greater influence on perception formation.

(i) Attitude: The attitude and aptitude of employees influence perception formation. If they have positive attitudes towards the management, they directly perceive the stimuli given by management. In case of negative attitudes, the employees suspect the management's approach. Employees of high aptitude have a desire and attitude for growth. They behave positively towards the management of an organisation.

(ii) Motives: The motives and desires of employees cause them to view stimuli differently as per their level and angle. Helpful motives of the employees will always assist the management. If they desire to develop themselves and the organisation, they will perceive objects and situations positively. Employees having low motives will not work sincerely. The perception will differ depending on different types of motives.

(iii) Interest: The interest of individuals draws more attention and recognition to stimuli. Less attention and recognition lowers the impact of stimuli or objects on behaviour. If employees lack interest, behaviour pattern will be less effective, and the perception will be weak. Managers cannot influence the employees in their work culture. Since individual interests vary from person to person, the perception is also different.

(iv) Habits: Habits die-hard and therefore individuals perceive objects, situations and conditions differently according to their habits. Many employees learn quickly. Others are slow in perceiving a stimulus. Some employees are not bothered about the management. They do not perceive the object correctly. Some people work by smoking or chewing pan. Thus, the habits of people have different perception levels.

(v) Experiences: The experience of employees’ result in different levels of perception. A young employee takes time to understand the object and situation. Experienced employees generally understand objects quickly and correctly. However, in contradictory situations, it is difficult to correct aged persons, whereas the young are easily moulded towards achieving the objectives of the organisation.

(vi) Expectation: Expectations distort the perceptions. People see what they expect to see. If they see the object and the situation differently from their expectations, they get frustrated. They are unable to modify their behaviour. The employees may expect more inclination towards them positively in terms of payments and fringe benefits; therefore, they perceive the management from that angle.

(vii) Learning: Learning levels of employees have a great impact on their perceptions. It is an important factor influencing perception formation. Educated persons have higher perceptions than the less educated persons. Attitudes are developed according to the learning levels.

(viii) Personality: Personality has different levels of perception. Young people perceive objects and situations in the original form. Experienced persons perceive the objects as per their personality levels. The personality has a wider impact on the perception process too. Persons can view objects and situations as per their personality levels. The age, sex, motivation, learning levels, etc. influence perception.

2.      EXTERNAL FACTORS

The perception process is influenced by external factors, which may be objects and situations. The external points related to objects and situations have great influence on the perception process. The external factors may be the size, interest, contrast, repetition, motion, familiarity, novelty and others.

(i) Size: The size of the object or stimulus has a greater impact on the perception process because the size influences attention and recognition in a more effective manner. Employees are greatly influenced by tall and well-built managers as compared to the normal-sized individuals. The engineering department pays more attention to big and, attractive machines; Big-sized objects have a natural attraction and get more attention.

(ii) Intensity: Scholars on human behaviour have revealed that the more intense the stimuli, the higher the attention and recognition in the perception process. A strong voiced manager has more impact on supervisors and employees. It is observed that managers use voice modulation to get the attention of employees. Bright letters and strong appeal have more impact on people than normal letters and low appeal.

(iii) Contrast: Contrasting objects have more impact on behaviour. Employees pay more attention and recognition to contrasting objects and situations. Machines making noises are hardly noticed, but a machine coming to a halt is immediately noticed, because of contrast stimuli. The purpose of contrast stimuli is to attract more attention and recognition.

(iv) Repetition: Repeated stimuli have more impact on performances than a single statement. Repetition has the advantage of being attention-catching. When stimuli are waning, repetition generates fresh attention and recognition. Supervisors repeat orders several times to have them followed by employees.

(v) Motion: People pay more attention to the moving objects than to stationary objects. This is just the impact of eyes on the mind. Workers are more attentive towards working machines than stationary machines. The video films of some training programmes create more of an impact on employees than others. 

(vi) Familiarity: Employees would like to hear and see those programmes with which they are familiar. Training programmes demonstrated in the language of the employees are highly attended and recognised. Examples, which are known and easily understood, are used for motivating employees.

(vii) Novelty: Novel actions 'get more attention. New ideas and model preaching will draw the attention of the perceiver. Changing jobs reduce monotony. Novel objects and situations are recognised clearly by the perceivers.

(viii) Situations: Situations have a great influence on people's perceptions. A favourable work environment develops a positive attitude and work culture because the perception process is easily channelised and rightly directed.

(ix) Objects: Objects are external factors influencing the perceiver because he has no control over them. The physical and internal attributes of objects are influencing factors of perception. The physical and time proximity, complex nature of objects, presentation of messages and the territorial approach of the management have great impact on the perception.

3.      INTERNAL FACTORS

 Internal factors are within the personal control of the perceivers. They use these factors when they so desire. They are based on the individual’s psychological setup, economic and social background, learning, personality and motivation.

(i) Psychological setup: Factors such as attitude, interest, preferences, likings and other psychological bent of mind distort the perception process. People perceive what they like to perceive because of their attitudinal and mental approaches. These factors are the outcome of not only the self-factors of the individuals but their actions and interaction with other people. People working with employees do help in the foundation of the psychological setup. One person's problem may be another person's satisfaction. For example, giving a higher bonus is a state of satisfaction to employees, but becomes a problem for managers.

(ii) Economic and Social background: The employee perceptions are based on economic and social backgrounds. The employee's level of understanding depends upon their economic and social backgrounds. Socially and economically developed employees have a more positive attitude towards development rather than less developed employees. However, developed employees are prone to decision-oriented functions. Conflicts between managers and employees will increase in this case. The problems can be resolved only through proper perception processes.

(iii) Learning: The state of learning influences the perception process. Highly educated persons can easily and rightly perceive the management's problem. They cooperate in problem solution. On the contrary, less educated employees are less concerned about the management. They perceive the management as a separate and superior part of the organisation, who tend to exploit the labour, irrespective of the reality. People perceive as per their levels of learning. It is therefore essential for the organisation to make its employees knowledgeable and educated for their effective performance and behaviour. The learning of managers and workers is a twin requirement.

(iv) Personality: The personality of the perceiver as well as the stimulator has an impact on the perception process. The age, sex, race, dress, facial expressions and body postures of both the persons have a direct influence on the perception process. If the perceiver is female and the stimulator is male, the perceiver gets some influences only if she prefers males. Otherwise, the perception process will be disturbed. The ethnic personalities have some influence on perception. Physical and mental characteristics, work pattern and age similarities affect the perception process.

(v) Motivation: The pattern of motivation in an organisation helps to develop perception building. Motivated people have the right perceptions about the stimuli, whereas the loco-profiled workers are doubtful about the message given by the management for the development. The approach of the female managers to problems is given more attention and recognition.

4.      ORGANISATIONAL STRUTURE

The perceptual process is influenced by the organisational structure and process. The perceptual structure, perceptual grouping, constancy, context, defence, workplace and process have been recognised as important factors influencing the perceptual process.

(i)                 Perceptual structure: The organisational structure influences the perception of employees and other people related to the organisation. The departmentalisation, decentralisation, delegation of authority and other structural frameworks have important bearings in the mind of employees. An adequate amount of decentralisation makes employees feel that the organisation is welfare-oriented. Similarly, too much centralisation gives rise to the feeling of suspicion in the minds of employees. Structure itself becomes a flowchart of perception.

(ii)               Perceptual grouping: The manager generally groups all the stimuli together to influence the employees. The grouping is done based on closure, continuity, similarity and proximity. The closure doctrine of grouping is based on the Gestalt Principle of psychology wherein the individuals perceive the whole object although the whole unit does not exist. For example, the manager perceives that all the members cooperate with him in achieving computerisation, whereas some members really oppose mechanisation. The manager tries to close the disagreement and maintains uniformity in agreement for mechanisation. On the other hand, if the members do not withdraw their disagreement, they observe their individual perceptions. The continuity principle emphasises that the stimuli should continue to make an impact on the perceiver. Discreet stimuli may however distort the perception process. The continuity principle is different from the closure principle as missing stimuli are applied in the latter case, whereas a continuous link is maintained in the former case. It is observed that only continuous and related stimuli are easily attended and recognised. The obvious and continuous flow of stimuli may produce the desired behaviour. The similarity principle assumes that similar stimuli are easily attended, recognised and perceived. The similarity has its own impact on the employees. For example, employees wearing special clothes at the workplace automatically carry the message of the organisation. Similarity in age, sex, education and other characteristics have a direct impact on the employee's perception. The proximity principle refers to the grouping of the segments into one unit.

(iii)              Perceptual constancy: Perceptual constancy plays an important role in the perception process. The stability and unchangeability of objects help in the constant perception process of people. The constancy of stimuli helps in easy perception because people become accustomed to the stimuli. The size, shape, place and colour of objects and situation are easily observed if they are constant. Constant stimuli make the perception process easy and effective.

(iv)              Perceptual context: The context of the stimuli with reference to objects and situations has a meaningful impact on the perceiver. If the perceiver has the confidence that the stimuli are relevant to their work and awards, they may pay more attention to the perception process, policies and objectives relevant to employees. Welfare is paid more attention. Verbal communication in the relevant context is given more perceptual consideration.

(v)               Perceptual defence: The defensive role of the management is well recognised by the employees. There are many areas where employees develop conflicts, which are resolved by the management. Such functions, which provide defence to conflicting views, are given more importance by employees. People like to defend their professions, work and work relations, if they are satisfied. On the contrary, dissatisfied workers criticise their own work and workplace. Many workers perceive conflicts as not being very serious. They only perceive conflicts as casual and to be expected, without any significant features. Some employees however find conflicts alarming. They react to warning signs and perceive the situation differently. Managers can find different perceptions for their actions because they view the situation from the angle of defence.

(vi)             Perceptual workplace: The perceptual process is affected by the workplace too. The climate temperature, noise, smoke and other factors have a direct bearing on the perception and psychological traits of employees. Consequently, the perceptual process is different for different employees. Some employees develop a positive perception while others develop a negative perception of the workplace. All employees perceive the same situation and object differently because of the varied nature of their workplace.

(vii)            Perceptual process: The relationship between employees and managers is crucial in the perceptual process. Employees may perceive a low output with pleasure to influence their supervisor. The management has a different perception of performance and evaluation. Some may perceive a self-fulfilling prophecy by the management, when they have too high or too low expectation from employees. High expectation inspires managers to motivate their employees positively. Managers develop subjective attitudes many times about the performance and process.

(viii)          

5.      SOCIAL FACTORS

Social conditions have much influence on the perception process. Perceivers and the perceived objects have complex characteristics. They are perceived differently in different situationsSocial factors consider how one person behaves towards the other person and how other people behave towards him. The interaction between the manager and his subordinates is considered under social factors, which include the stereotyping effect, the halo effect, contrast effect and projection. 

(i) Stereotyping effect: The perception process takes the shortest method in some cases and considers only routine effects. Stereotype judgement is based on an ideal situation or the type of impression formed about the group. It is the consideration of individual's characteristics as being representative of the whole group. If an employee is found well behaved, the whole group of employees is considered to be good. If, in an organisation, a manager is helpful, it is generalised that the organisation is very helpful and sympathetic towards employees. It is an inductive method wherein conclusions are aggregated from individual performance; that is, it accumulates particular cases to arrive at general conclusions. Stereotyping is generalisation, which has the advantages of being time saving, accurate and common.

 (ii) Halo effect: The halo effect occurs only when a single factor is taken for performance evaluation or perception, with the process ignoring other important considerations. For example, if an employee is considered good on one account, he is treated as good on all accounts. But, in the real field, he may not be good on every account. The halo effect is related to the personality assessment based only on a single trait. If a manager is found to be intelligent, he is considered good for cooperation, dependability and for other purposes. The halo effect arises on account of the nuclear expression of traits, which are not frequently encountered and have moral implications.

(iii) Contrast effect: Like stereotyping and halo effect, the contrast effect is another factor of social perception, i.e. perception in a group. People perceive differently in many cases. Whatever the manager emphasises, the employees may take different views of the stimulus. For example, manager asks employees to increase productivity for getting a bonus. Employees may view this stimulus or message as the manager being bothered about his promotion. If employees develop this perception and translate it into practice, the stimulus will work against the purpose. The contrast effect is an error of social perception. Politicians generally produce a contrast effect amongst their audience. The contrast effect occurs because of doubtful relations, swift conclusions, unfavourable attitudes and so on.

(iv) Projection: Generalisation leads to projection. People have the habit of projection although it may not be correct. People may project future events differently from the reality in many cases. Personal attributes, objects and situations are to be considered before projection. However, projection may not be always incorrect. If it is properly evaluated and placed, the projection may give the correct perception. For example, if a manager is trustworthy, he may also treat his employees trustworthy. Contrary to this, many employees may not be trustworthy. Similarly, a manager who is good may not necessarily consider his employees good too. Thus, the projection process differs from person to person, place to place and object to object, and this has an ultimate impact on the perception process.

Q7. Define Motivation? Explain the various sources of motivation?

Ans. The word motivation is derived from motive, which is defined as an active form of a desire, craving or need, which must be satisfied. All motives are directed towards goals and the needs and desires affect or change your behaviour, which becomes goal oriented. For example, if you ordinarily do not want to work overtime, it is quite likely that at a particular time, you may need more money (desire) so you may change your behaviour, work overtime (goal oriented behaviour) and satisfy your needs. Viteles defines motivation as: “Motivation represents an unsatisfied need which creates a state of tension or disequilibria, causing the individual to move in a goal directed pattern -towards restoring a state of equilibrium, by satisfying the need.”

SOURCES OF MOTIVATION

Experts in the organizational behaviour field have a divided opinion as to whether workers are motivated by factors in the external environment such as rewards or fear or whether motivation is self generated without the application of external factors. It is quite well understood that under the same set of external factors all workers are not equally motivated. Some of these motivational sources are:

Positive Motivation: Positive motivation involves proper recognition of employee, efforts and appreciation of employee contribution towards the organizational goal-achievement. Such motivations improve the standards of performance, lead to good team spirit and pride, a sense of cooperation and a feeling of belonging and happiness. Some of the positive motivators are:  Praise and credit for work done.  A sincere interest in the welfare of subordinates.  Delegation of authority and responsibility to subordinates.  Participation of subordinates in the decision making process.

 Negative or Fear Motivation: This motivation is based upon the use of force, power, fear and threats. The fear of punishment or unfavourable consequences affects the behavioural changes. Some examples of negative motivation include the fear of failing in the examination, and fear of being fired or demoted. Fear of failure in the examination induces motivation in many students to work harder and pass the course. Similarly, fear of being fired keeps the workers in the line with the organizational rules and regulations as well as do a satisfactory job. While the fear of punishment and actual punishment has resulted in controlling individual misbehaviour and has contributed towards positive performance in many situations and is necessary and useful in many other situations such as disciplining a child or handling a riot. It is not recommended or considered as a viable alternative in the current business and industrial environment.

Extrinsic Motivation: This type of motivation is induced by external factors, which are primarily financial in nature. It is based upon the assumption that the behaviour, which results in positive rewards, tends to be repeated. However, the reward the desired behaviour should be sufficiently powerful and durable so that it improves the probability of occurrence' of desirable behaviour. Money is probably the most important incentive for positive behaviour since money can be used for a number of other resources. These financial incentives and rewards have been a subject of debate whether they really motivate the employees or simply move them to work and perform. These include higher pay, fringe benefits such as retirement plans, stock options, profit sharing scheme, paid vacation, health and medical insurance, sympathetic supervision and people oriented company policies.

Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation stems from feelings of achievement and accomplishment and is concerned with the state of self actualization in which the satisfaction of accomplishing something worthwhile motivates the employee further so that this motivation is self generated and is independent of financial rewards. For example, there are many retired doctors who -work free in the hospital because it gives them a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction. Mother Teresa's work in the slums of Calcutta, India, not only motivates the people who work with her but also many others who simply hear about her work and then want to join the team. Similarly, Peace Corps workers work in uncomfortable environments at a minimal pay. Some of the intrinsic motivators are praise, recognition, responsibility, esteem, power, status, challenges and decision-making responsibility.

Q8.  Explain the various theories of Motivation in detail.

Ans. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION REGARDING BEHAVIOUR

There are basically two types of theories developed that relate to and define the motivational processes. These are the "content theories" which attempt to determine and specify drives and needs that motivate people to work and "process theories" which attempt to identify the variables that go into motivation and their relationship with each other. These theories are described in greater detail.  The Content Theories of Work Motivation The content theories have been developed to explain the nature of motivation in terms of types of need that people experience. They attempt to focus on factors within a person that initiate and direct a certain type of behaviour or check certain other type of behaviour. The basic idea underlying such theories is that people have certain fundamental needs, both physiological and psychological in nature, and that they are motivated to engage in activities that would satisfy these needs. Thus the nature of needs establishes the nature of motivation that results in a specific behaviour aimed at reaching the goal of satisfying such needs.      

Some of the more important content theories are:

MASLOW'S MODEL

Maslow’s "needs hierarchy theory" is probably the most widely used theory of motivation in organizations. Abraham Maslow suggested that people have a complex set of exceptionally strong needs and the behaviour of individuals at a particular moment is usually determined by their strongest need. He developed his model of human motivation in 1943, based upon his own clinical experience and formulated his theory of hierarchical needs by asking the same question, what is it that makes people behave the way they do and made a list of answers from which he developed a pattern. His theory is based upon two assumptions. First those human beings have many needs those are different in nature ranging from the biological needs at the lower level, which is the level of survival, to psychological needs at the upper extreme, which is the level of growth. Second that these needs occur in an order of hierarchy so that lower level needs must be satisfied before higher level needs arise or become motivators.

These needs are explained in detail as follows:

1. Physiological needs: The physiological needs form the foundation of the hierarchy and tend to have the highest strength in terms of motivation. These are primarily the needs arising out of physiological or biological tension and they are there to sustain life itself and include the basic needs  for food, water, shelter and sex. Sexual need and desire is not to be contused with love, which is at the third level. Once these basic needs are satisfied to the degree needed for the sufficient and comfortable operation of the body, then the other levels of needs become important and start acting as motivators. 

2. Security and Safety needs: Once the physiological needs are gratified, the safety and security need~ become predominant. These are the needs for self-preservation as against physiological needs, which are for survival. These needs a include those of security, stability freedom from anxiety and a structured and ordered environment. These safety and security needs are really provisions against deprivation of satisfaction of physiological needs in the future. It also involves a sense of protection against threats and danger of losing the job in the future. In a civilized society such as ours, a person is usually protected from threats of violence or extremes in climate or fear of material safety, so that the safety and security needs dwell upon economic and job security, life and medical insurance and other protective measures to safeguard the satisfaction of physiological needs in the future which may be unpredictable.

 3. Love and Social needs: After the needs of the body and security are satisfied, then a sense of belonging and acceptance becomes prominent m motivating behaviour. These needs include the needs for love, friendship, affection, and social interaction. We look for an environment where we are understood, respected arid wanted. That is one reason for "polarization" where people of similar background arid beliefs tend to group together. "Love thy neighbor" has perhaps a profound meaning.

4. Esteem needs: This need for esteem is to attain recognition from others, which would induce a feeling of self-worth and self-confidence in the Individual. It is an urge for achievement, prestige, status and power. Self respect is the internal recognition. The respect from others is the external recognition and an appreciation of one's individuality as well as his contribution. This would result in self-confidence, independence, status, reputation and prestige. People then would begin to feel that they are useful and have some positive effect on their surrounding environment.

5. Self-actualization needs: This last need is the need to develop fully and to realize one's capacities and potentialities to the fullest extent possible, whatever these capacities and potentialities maybe. This is the highest level of need in Maslow’s hierarchy and is activated as a motivator when all other needs have been reasonably fulfilled. At this level, the person seeks challenging work assignments that allow for creativity and opportunities for personal growth and advancement. This need is for soul searching and is inner-oriented. A self-actualized person is creative, independent, content, and spontaneous and has a good perception of reality and he is constantly striving to realize his fun potential. Thus, "what a man ‘can’ be ‘must’ be.”

ERG THEORY

The ERG need theory, developed by Clayton Alerter is a refinement of Maslow's needs hierarchy. Instead of Maslow's five needs, ERG theory condenses these five needs into three needs. These three needs are those of Existence, Relatedness and- Growth. The E, Rand G is the initials for these needs.

1. Existence needs: These needs are roughly comparable to the physiological and safety needs of Maslow's model and are satisfied primarily by material incentives. They include all physiological needs of Maslow's model and such safety needs which financial and physical conditions rather than interpersonal relations satisfy. These include the needs for sustenance, shelter and physical and psychological safety from threats to people's existence and well being. 

2. Relatedness needs: Relatedness needs roughly correspond to social and esteem needs in Maslow's hierarchy. These needs are satisfied by personal relationships and social interaction with others. It involves open communication and honest exchange-of thoughts and feelings with other organizational members.

 3. Growth needs: These are the needs to develop and grow and reach the full potential that a person is capable of reaching. They are similar to Maslow's self-actualization needs. These needs are fulfilled by strong personal involvement in the organizational environment and by accepting new opportunities and challenges. ERG theory differs from Maslow's theory in proposing that people may be motivated by more than one-kind of need at tile same time. While Maslow proposes that in hierarchy of needs, a person will satisfy the lower level needs before he moves up to the next level of needs and will stay at that, need until it is satisfied, ERG theory suggests that if a person is frustrated in satisfying his needs at a given level, he will move back to lower level needs. For example; assume that a manager’s existence needs are fully satisfied and he looks for more challenging tasks to satisfy his self-esteem needs.

McCLELLAND'S THEORY OF NEEDS

Since the lower level needs in Maslow's model are generally satisfied by the business, societal and legal systems, they are no longer strong motivators. Studies conducted by Harvard psychologist David McClelland concluded that from the organizational behaviour point of view the most prominent need is the need for achievement, power and affiliation. The primary motive is the "achievement motive" and is defined as a desire to succeed in competitive situations based upon an established or perceived standard of excellence." Individuals with a strong "need for achievement" (known as n Ach), ask for, accept and perform, well in challenging tasks which require creativity, ingenuity and hard work. They are constantly preoccupied with a desire for improvement and look for situations in which successful outcomes are directly correlated with their efforts so that they can claim credit for success. They take- moderate and calculated risks and prefer to get quick and precise feedback on their performance. They set more difficult but achievable goals. For themselves, because; success with easily achievable goals hardly provides a sense of achievement. They desire greater pleasure and excitement from solving a complex problem than from financial incentives or simple praise. The "need for power" (n Paw) is the desire is the desire to affect and control the behaviour of other people and to manipulate the surroundings. Power motivation when applied positively results in successful managers and leaders who prefer democratic style of leadership. Power motivation, applied-negatively tends to create arrogant autocratic leadership. The "need for affiliation" (n Aff) is related to social needs and reflects a desire for friendly and warm relationships with others. Individuals tend to seek affiliation with others who have similar beliefs, backgrounds and outlook on life. This results in information of informal groups and informal organizations. It is evident in social circles also that people mix with people of their own kind. Individuals with high "n Aff” tend to get involved in jobs that require a high amount of interpersonal contact; and relations such as jobs in teaching and public relations. From organizational behaviour point of view, these individuals are highly motivated to perform better in situations where personal support and approval are tied to performance. They tend to avoid conflict and exhibit strong conformity to the wishes of their friends

HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

Fredrick Herzberg and his associates developed the two-factor theory in the late 1950s and early 1960s. As part of a study of job satisfaction, Herzberg and his colleagues conducted in-depth interviews with over 200 engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area. The researchers felt that a person's relation to his work is a basic one and that his attitude towards work would determine his organization related behaviour. The respondents were required to describe in detail the type of environment in which they felt exceptionally good about their jobs and the type of environment in which they felt bad about their jobs. It seems natural to believe that people who are generally satisfied with their job will be more dedicated to their work and perform it well as compared to those people who are dissatisfied with their jobs. If the logic seems justified then it would be useful to isolate those factors and conditions that produce satisfaction with the job and those factors, which produce dissatisfaction. The basic questions that were asked in the survey were the following two:  What is it about your job that you like? and   What is it about your job that you dislike? Based upon these answers it was concluded that there are certain characteristics or factors that tend to be consistently related to job satisfaction and there are other factors that are consistently related to job dissatisfaction. Herzberg named the factors that are related to job satisfaction as motivational factors, which are intrinsic in nature and factors related to job dissatisfaction as maintenance or hygiene 'factors which are extrinsic in nature. These factors are described in detail as follows:

1. Hygiene factors: Hygiene factors do not motivate people. They simply prevent dissatisfaction and MAINTAIN STATUS QUO. They produce no growth but prevent loss. The absence of these factors leads to job dissatisfaction. The elimination of dissatisfaction does not mean satisfaction and these factors simply maintain a “zero level of motivation.” For example: if a person indicated "low pay" as a cause of dissatisfaction, it would not necessarily identify '”high pay” as a cause of satisfaction. Some of the hygiene factors are:

Wages, salary and other types of employee benefits  Company policies and administration rules that govern the working environment  Interpersonal relations with peers, supervisors and subordinates Cordial relations with all will prevent frustration and dissatisfaction  Working conditions and job security. The job security may be in the form of tenure or a strong union could support it.  Supervisor's technical competence as well as the quality of his supervision. If the supervisor is knowledgeable about the work and is patient with his subordinates and explains and guides them well, the subordinates would not be dissatisfied in this respect. All the hygiene factors are designed to avoid damage to efficiency or morale and these are not expected to stimulate positive growth. Hawthorne experiments were highly conclusive in suggesting that improvements in working conditions or increments in financial benefits do not contribute to motivated performance. A new plant or upgraded facilities at a plant seldom motivate workers if the workers do not enjoy their work and these physical facilities are no substitute for employee feelings of recognition and achievement.

 2.  Motivational factors  These factors are related to the nature of work (job content) and are intrinsic to the job itself. These factors have a positive influence on morale, satisfaction, efficiency and higher productivity. Some of these factors are:

(i) The job itself: To be motivated, people must like and enjoy their jobs. They become highly committed to goal achievement and do not mind working late hours in order to do what is to be done. Their morale is high as evidenced by lack of absenteeism and tardiness.

 (ii) Recognition: Proper recognition of an employee's contribution by the management is highly morale boosting. It gives the workers a. feeling of worth and self esteem. It is human nature to be happy when appreciated. Thus, such recognition is highly motivational.

 (iii) Achievement: A goal achievement gives a great feeling of accomplishment. The goal must be challenging, requiring initiative and creativity. An assembly line worker finishing his routine work hardly gets the feeling of achievement. The opportunities must exist for the meaningful achievement; otherwise workers become sensitized to the environment and begin to find faults with it.

(i)                 Responsibility: It is an obligation on the part of the employee to carry out the assigned duties satisfactorily. The higher the level of these duties, the more responsible the work would feel and more motivated he would be. It is a good feeling to know that you are considered a person of integrity and intelligence to be given a higher responsibility. It is a motivational factor that helps growth. 

(ii)               Growth and advancement: These factors are all interrelated and are positively related to motivation. Job promotions, higher responsibility, participation in central decision-making and executive benefits are all signs of growth and advancement and add to dedication and commitment of employees.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION REGARDING WORK

While "need theories" of motivation concentrate upon "what" motivates persons, "process theories" concentrate upon "how" motivation occurs. These theories identify the variables that go into motivation and their relationship with each other. Some of these theories are explained in more detail as follows: 

VROOM'S EXPECTANCY MODEL

The expectancy model is based upon the belief that motivation is determined by the nature of the reward people expect to get as a result of their job performance. The underlying assumption is that a man is a rational being and will try to maximize his perceived value of such rewards. He will choose an alternative that would give him the most benefit. People are highly motivated if they believe that a certain type of behaviour will lead to a certain type of outcome and their extent of personal preference for that type of outcome. There are three important elements in the model. These are: 

 Expectancy: This is a person's perception of the likelihood that a particular outcome will result from a particular behavior or action. This likelihood is probabilistic in nature and describes the relationship between an act and its outcome. For example, if a student works hard during the semester, he will expect to do well in the final examination. It is not 100% definite that he will indeed do well in the examination. There is some probability attached to this outcome. Similarly, if a person works hard, he may expect to perform better and increase productivity. For example, a worker works hard and is absolutely certain (expectancy = 1.0) that he can produce an average 15 units a day and 60% certain (expectancy = 0.6) that he can produce a high of 20 units per day. This expectation of outcome is known as "first level" outcome.

 Instrumentality: This factor relates to a person's belief and expectation that his performance will lead to a particular desired reward. It is the degree of association of first level outcome of a particular effort to the second level outcome-which is the ultimate reward. For example, working hard may lead to better performance-which is the first level outcome, and it may result in a reward such as salary increase or promotion or bothwhich is the second level outcome. If a person believes that his high performance will not be recognized or lead" to expected and desired rewards, he will not be motivated to work hard for better output. Similarly, a professor may work had to improve upon his techniques of teaching and communication (first level outcome) in order to get promotion and tenure (second level outcome). Accordingly, instrumentality is the performance reward relationship.

 Valence: Valence is the value a person assigns to his desired reward. He may not be willing to work hard to improve performance if the reward for such improved performance is not what he desires. It is not the actual value of the reward but the perceptual value of the reward in the mind of the worker that is important. A person may be motivated to work hard not to get pay raise but to get recognition and status. Another person may be more interested in job security than status.  Accordingly, according to this model of motivation, the person's level of effort (motivation) depends upon: Expectancy: A worker must be confident that his efforts will result in better productivity and that he has the ability to perform the task well. Instrumentality: The worker must be confident that such high performance will be instrumental in getting desired rewards.

Q9. Define Transactional analysis and explain the ego states given by eric berne. Also explain johari Window?

Ans. Transactional Analysis:  “The unit of social intercourse is called a transaction. If two or more people encounter each other sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some other indication of acknowledging the presence of the others. This is called transactional stimulus. Another person will then say or do something which is in some way related to the stimulus, and that is called the transactional response.”

With this definition, Dr. Berne defined the basic unit of analysis. At its simplest level, Transactional Analysis is the method for studying interactions between individuals. By identifying and standardizing upon a single unit, development and promotion of this theory was easily facilitated. Psychotherapists were able to read about Berne’s theories and test them out in their own practices

Berne’s Three Ego States

The following are detailed descriptions of the three ego states:

Parent – The parent represents a massive collection of recordings in the brain of external events experienced or perceived in approximately the first five years of life. Since the majority of the external events experienced by a child are actions of the parent, the ego state was appropriately called Parent. Note that events perceived by the child from individuals that are NOT parents (but who are often in parent-like roles) are also recorded in the Parent. When Transactional Analysts refer to the Parent ego state (as opposed to a biological or stepparent), it is capitalized. The same goes for the other two states (Adult and Child).

Examples of recordings in the Parent include:

§  “Never talk to strangers”

§  “Always chew with your mouth closed”

§  “Look both ways before you cross the street”

It is worth noting that, while recording these events, the young child has no way to filter the data; the events are recorded without question and without analysis. One can consider that these events are imposed on the child.

There are other data experienced by the child that are not recorded in the Parent. This is recorded in the Adult, which will be described shortly.

Child – In contrast to the Parent, the Child represents the recordings in the brain of internal events associated with external events the child perceives. Stated another way, stored in the Child are the emotions or feelings which accompanied external events. Like the Parent, recordings in the Child occur from childbirth all the way up to the age of approximately 5 years old.

Adult – The Adult is the last ego state. Close to one year of age, a child begins to exhibit gross motor activity. The child learns that he or she can control a cup from which to drink, that he or she can grab a toy. In social settings, the child can play peek-a-boo.

This is the beginning of the Adult in the small child. Adult data grows out of the child’s ability to see what is different than what he or she observed (Parent) or felt (Child). In other words, the Adult allows the young person to evaluate and validate Child and Parental data. Berne describes the Adult as being “principally concerned with transforming stimuli into pieces of information, and processing and filing that information on the basis of previous experience”⁶ Stated another way, Harris describes the Adult as “a data-processing computer, which grinds out decisions after computing the information from three sources: the Parent, the Child, and the data which the adult has gathered and is gathering”

The summary is as follows:

Parent – taught concept
Child – felt concept
Adult – learned concept

Johari window

A model known as the Johari Window illustrates the process of giving and receiving feedback. Psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham developed the window for their group process program. Look at the model above as a communication window through which you give and receive information about yourself and others. Look at the four panes in terms of columns and rows. The two columns represent the self; the two rows represent the group. Column one contains "things that I know about myself;" column two contains "things that I do not know about myself." The information in these rows and columns moves from one pane to another as the level of mutual trust and the exchange of feedback varies in the group. As a consequence of this movement, the size and shape of the panes within the window will vary.

The first pane, the "Arena," contains things that I know about myself and about which the group knows. Characterized by free and open exchanges of information between myself and others, this behavior is public and available to everyone. The Arena increases in size as the level of trust increases between individuals or between an individual and the group. Individuals share more information, particularly personally relevant information.

The second pane, the "Blind Spot," contains information that I do not know about myself but of which the group may know. As I begin to participate in the group, I am not aware of the information I communicate to the group. The people in the group learn this information from my verbal cues, mannerisms, the way I say things, or the style in which I relate to others. For instance, I may not know that I always look away from a person when I talk... or that I always clear my throat just before I say something. The group learns this from me.

Pane three, the "Facade" or "Hidden Area," contains information that I know about myself but the group does not know. I keep these things hidden from them. I may fear that if the group knew my feelings, perceptions, and opinions about the group or the individuals in the group, they might reject, attack, or hurt me. As a consequence, I withhold this information. Before taking the risk of telling the group something, I must know there are supportive elements in our group. I want group members to judge me positively when I reveal my feelings, thoughts, and reactions. I must reveal something of myself to find out how members will react. On the other hand, I may keep certain information to myself so that I can manipulate or control others.

The fourth and last pane, the "Unknown," contains things that neither I nor the group knows about me. I may never become aware of material buried far below the surface in my unconscious area. The group and I may learn other material, though, through a feedback exchange among us. This unknown area represents intrapersonal dynamics, early childhood memories, latent potentialities, and unrecognized resources. The internal boundaries of this pane change depending on the amount of feedback sought and received. Knowing all about myself is extremely unlikely, and the unknown extension in the model represents the part of me that will always remain unknown (the unconscious in Freudian terms).        

Q10. Explain the concept of group. Also explain its various types?

Ans.  Concept and Definition of Group

Groups have been a central part of our everybody lives. At any given time, we are members in many different groups such as family, student association, workgroups and different clubs.

A group is a collection of two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve a particular common objective.

According to D.H.Smith, “A group is the largest set of two or more individuals who are jointly characterized by a network of relevant communication, a shared sense of collective identity and one or more shared disposition with associated normative strength.

The above definition stresses the following points.

Interaction

Size

Shared goal interest

Collective Identity

TYPES OF GROUPS

Various methods are used to classify the types of groups that exist in our organizations.In organizations, the predominant operating groups are the functional groups, task or project groups and interest groups. In addition, groups are also classified as formal and informal groups.

1.      Formal groups:

Formal groups are collections of employees who are made to work together by the organization to get the job done smoothly and efficiently. For example, if five members are put together in a department to attend to customer complaints they would be a formal group. The formal groups are those whose primary purpose is facilitating, through member interactions, the attainment of the goals of the organization. Task groups/project groups, command groups and committees come under formal groups.

2.      Task or Project Groups:

When a number of employees are formally brought together for the purpose of accomplishing a specific task – for a short-term or long term period – such a collection of individuals is called a task or project group. For example, the plant manager of a chemical processing plant may be interested in identifying potential safety problems in the plant. To provide a coordinated effort, the manager creates a four-person task force consisting of the production superintendent, maintenance superintendent, director of engineering and the safety engineer. The group members will deliberate these issues bring out suitable remediable measure for those safety problems within a deadline period.

If any problems are found, the plant manager may create other task forces to work toward the elimination of the potential problems. These activities create a situation that encourages the members of the task force to communicate, interact and to coordinate activities, if the purpose of the group is to be accomplished.

3.      Informal groups:

Informal groups are groups that emerge or randomly get formed due to the formal group members’ interaction with each other, and thereby develop common interest. For example, members who are showing interest in cricket will join together and share and enjoy talking about the cricket games. Informal groups provide a very important service by satisfying their members’ social needs. Because of interactions that result from the close proximity of task interactions, group members play cricket together, spending their tea breaks together etc. Friendship groups, Interest groups and Reference groups come under informal groups.

4.      Interest and Friendship Groups:

The group members form relationships based on some common characteristics such as age, political belief, or interests. Generally, it can be considered as informal group. Employees   who   joined   together   to   have   their   fringe   benefits   continued   to   have    its implementation, to support a peer who has been fired, or to seek more festival holidays etc. they tend to unite together to further their common interest. Groups often develop because the individual members have one or more common characteristics. This is called friendship groups.

For example, recreation clubs, social groups etc. Management usually doesn’t have any control over these informal groups.

Q11. Why people join groups? Explain the stages for Group Development?

Ans. REASONS FOR JOINING GROUPS:

The most popular reasons for joining a group are related to our needs for security, identity, affiliation, power and engaging in common tasks.

1.      Protection of common and individual Interest:

By joining a group, members can reduce the insecurity of being alone. The membership will make them feel stronger, gaining resistant to threats, having fewer self-doubts etc. New employees are particularly vulnerable to a sense of isolation and turn to the group for guidance and support. Employees develop a sense of security at personal as well as professional front by joining groups.

2.      Status:

Inclusion in a group that is viewed as important by others provides recognition and status for its members. Being a member of Rotary Club, the members feel pride and gain status and recognition.

3.      Self-Esteem:

Groups can provide people with feelings of self-worth. That is, in addition to conveying status to those outside the group, membership can also give increased feelings of worth to the group members themselves. The self-esteem is bolstered when members are accepted by a highly valued group. Being assigned to a task force whose purpose is to review and make recommendations for the location of the company’s new corporate headquarters can fulfill one’s intrinsic needs for competence and growth.

4.      Affiliation:

Groups can fulfill social needs. People enjoy the regular interaction that comes with group membership. For many people, these on-the-job interactions at work are the primary source for fulfilling their needs for affiliation.

5.      Power:

For individuals who desire to influence others, groups can offer power without a formal position of authority in the organization. As a group leader he or she may be able to make requests of group members and obtain compliance without any of the responsibilities that traditionally go either formal managerial position.

6.      Goal Achievement:

There are times when it takes more than one person to accomplish a particular task- there is a need to pool talents, knowledge in order to complete a job. In such instances, management will rely on the use of a formal group.

STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT:

i) Forming: At this stage, group members try to comprehend where they stand in the group and how they are being perceived by others in the group. The members are very cautious in their  interactions with each other and the relationships among the group members are very superficial. Members’ seldom express their feelings in the group and the individual members who are trying to understand who they are in the group have concerns about how they will fit in the group as permanent group members. This is characterized by much uncertainty about group’s purpose, structure and leadership. Members are ‘testing the waters’ to determine what types of behavior are acceptable. This stage is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a group.

ii) Storming: At this stage, disagreement tends to get expressed among the group members, and feelings of anxiety and resentment are also expressed. Some power struggle may ensure at this stage to determine who should assume the informal leadership role in the group. This storming stage is also known as the sub-grouping and confrontation. This group is characterized by  intra group conflict. Members accept the existence of the group, but there is resistance to the control the group imposes on individuality. There is sometimes conflict over who will control the group. When this stage is complete, there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within the group.

iii) Norming: This stage is characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness. The group sets norms, tries to attain some degree of cohesiveness, understands the goals of the group, starts making good decision, expresses feelings openly and makes attempts to resolve problems and attain group effectiveness. At this stage, members’ roles get defined, and task and maintenance roles are assumed by group members. Group members’ also begin to express satisfaction and confidence about being members of the group.

iv) Performing:  This stage is characterized by collaboration and integration. The group members evaluate their performance so that the members develop and grow. The group relationships and structures are set and accepted. Group energy has moved from getting to know and understand each other, to performing the task at hand. Feelings are expressed at this stage without fear, leadership roles shared among the members, and the group members’ activities are highly co-coordinated. The task and maintenance roles are played very effectively. The task performance levels are high and member satisfaction, pride and commitment to the group also high. Both performance and members’ satisfaction are sustained indefinitely;

v) Adjourning: This stage is characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. The group prepares for its disbandment. High task performance is no longer the group’s top priority. Instead, attention is directed towards finalizing activities. As the group approaches the terminal phase, members break off their bonds of affection and stop interaction with each other. Responses of group members vary in this state. Some feel pride in what the group has accomplished. Others may be negative and critical of the way the organization has treated the group and others may be sad over the loss of friendship gained during the life of the work groups. These five stages of group development are only a suggestive and not prescriptive. Sometimes, groups do not always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. Sometimes, several stages go on simultaneously as when groups are storming and performing at the same time. Under some conditions, high levels of conflict are conducive to high group performance.

Q12. Write short notes on: (i) Group Cohesiveness (ii) Group Decision making

Ans. 12.GROUP COHESION:

Cohesion refers to the extent of unity in the group and is reflected in the members’ conformity to the norms of the group, feelings of attraction for each other, and wanting to be co-members of the group. Attraction, cohesion and conforming to norms are all intertwined. The more the members feel attracted to the group, the greater will be the group cohesion. The greater the cohesion, the greater the influence of group members to persuade one another to conform to the group norms. The greater the conformity, the greater the identification of the members with the group, and the greater the group cohesion. Cohesive groups work together to achieve the group goals. They can be considered as valuable assets to the organization if the group’s goals coincide with the organization’s goals.

Factors increasing Cohesiveness:

The following factors can facilitate to increase the cohesiveness of the work group.

i) Common consent on Group Goals:  If the group agrees on the purpose and direction of its activities, this will serve to bind the group together and structure interaction patterns towards successful goal accomplishment.

ii) Frequent Interactions: When group member have the opportunity to interact frequently with each other, the probability for closeness to develop will increase. Managers can provide opportunities for increased group interaction by calling frequent formal and informal meetings, providing a common meetings place or physically designing the facilities so that group members are within sight of one another.

iii) Personal Attractiveness: Cohesiveness is enhanced when members are attractive to one another if mutual trust and support already exists. Personal attraction also helps group members to overcome obstacles to goal accomplishment and personal growth and development.

iv) Inter-group Competition: Competition with other groups, both written and external to the organization is a mechanism that acts to bring groups closer together for attaining a common purpose.

v) Favorable Evaluation: If a group has performed in an outstanding manner, some recognition for its performance by management serves to elevate the prestige of the group in the eyes of the group members and other members of the group. Favorable evaluation helps make group members feel proud about being members of the group.

vi) Group Size:  As the size of the group increases, the frequency of interaction between members decreases, thus decreasing the probability of maintaining cohesiveness. Past studies have shown the groups of four to six members provide the best opportunity for interaction.vii) Pleasant experiences with the group: When group members are attracted to each other or there is a full trust and cooperation, interaction may become a pleasant experience resulting in high level of cohesiveness in the group.

viii) Lack of Domination: When one or few members dominate the group, cohesiveness cannot adequately develop. Such behavior can create smaller “cliques” within the group or identify individual members as isolates or deviates.

ix) Gender of Members: It is reported that women tend to have greater cohesion than men. A possible reason is that women are more likely to be feeling types than thinking types.

x) Previous Success: If a group has a history of success, it builds an espirit de corps that attracts and unites members. Successful organizations find it easier to attract and hire new employees than unsuccessful ones.

xi) Humor: Humor has been linked to increased cohesion in several studies. It is reported that the greater the cohesion, the greater the influence of the group over the behavior of members and subsequently group performance. As groups are composed of individuals who are attracted to the goals of the group and to each other, one would expect to find a strong relationship between cohesiveness and group performance. The major difference between highly cohesive and low cohesive groups would be how closely members conformed to the group norms. Further, the group performance would be influenced not only by cohesion, but by the level of group norms.

GROUP DECISIONMAKING:

Decisions made by the members of the group in a collective way are known as group decision making. Groups offer excellent techniques for performing many of the steps in the decision making process. If the group is composed of individuals with diverse backgrounds, the  alternatives generated should be more extensive and the analysis will be more critical.

Strengths of Group Decision-making:

The following aspects identified the main advantages that groups offer over individuals in the making of decisions.

i) More information and knowledge: By aggregating the resources of several individuals, the group brings more input into the decision process.

ii) Increased diversity of views: Group brings heterogeneity to the decision-making process and this opens up the opportunity for more approaches and alternatives to be considered.

iii) Increased acceptance of a solution: The group acceptance facilitates higher satisfaction among those employees required to implement it.

iv) Increased legitimacy: The group decision making process is consistent with demographic ideals and therefore may be perceived as being more legitimate than decisions  made by an individual.

Weakness of group decision making:

Some of the main disadvantages are:

i) Time-consuming: It takes time to assemble a group.

ii) Pressures to conform: The desire by group members to be accepted and considered as an asset to the group can result in squashing any overt disagreement, thus encouraging conformity among viewpoints.

iii) Domination by the few: Few people will try to dominate the group discussion. If such people are happened to be mediocre, the group overall effectiveness will suffer.

iv) Ambiguous responsibility: In group decision, the responsibility of any single member is reduced.

Q13. Define team? What are the common types of teams and various team building activities? Differentiate between groups and teams?

Ans. TEAMS

Team is a small no. of people with complementary skill who are committed for common purpose for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.

Types of Teams

There are four common types of teams:

i) Problem-solving Teams:

The primary goals of these teams are improving quality, efficiency and the work environment. The members share ideas or offer suggestions about how work process and methods can be improved. Quality circles are one of the problem solving teams where the work group members meet regularly to discuss and solve problems. The team members use tools and techniques to examine these problems and to present to management solutions and the costs and benefits of solving a problem.

ii) Self-managed Teams:

This refers to a team of employees who perform highly related or inter-dependent jobs and to take on many of the responsibilities of their former supervisors. Typically this includes planning and scheduling of work, assigning tasks to members, collective control over the pace of work, making operating decisions and taking action on problems. Self-managed teams meet their own goals and measure their own performance once top management sets the overall objectives. Fully self-managed work teams even select their own members and have the members evaluate each other’s performance.

iii) Cross-functional Teams:

This refers to a type of teams where employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task. Examples of Cross functional include task force to resolve emergency cases, committee composed of members from across departmental lines etc.

iv) Virtual Teams:

Teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed member in order to achieve a common goals. They allow people to collaborate on-line using communication links such as wide area networks, video conferencing or e-mail. The three primary factors that differentiate virtual teams from face to face teams are:

i)                    the absence of Para verbal and nonverbal cues,

ii)                   limited social context and

iii)                  the ability to overcome time and space constraints.

In virtual teams the members will never have an opportunity to have an access of Para language and non-verbal communication. And also suffer social support and less direct interaction among members.

TEAM BUILDING:

It is defined as planned interventions facilitated by a third-party consultant that developed problem solving procedures and skills, increase role clarity, solve major problems and improve effectiveness of work groups. Experts have clustered team-building activities into four general types such as interpersonal process, goal setting, defining roles and problem solving.

i)                    Interpersonal Process: The resolution of conflicts between and among the team members by creating a system of open communication by providing training on listening skills, negotiation skills etc.

ii)                   Goal Setting: Focusing on shared understanding of the mission and goals of the team. During this activity the team members clarify general goals and define specific tasks and sub goal to be accomplished within a specific time with set measurement criteria and reporting mechanisms.

iii)                 Defining Roles: The members must define the roles without any ambiguity and ensure that instructions are very clear. The responsibilities, norms and expressions and requirements of each role are clarified.

iv)                Problem Solving: The member must identify the problem and must follow steps such as gathering and analyzing data, finding causes, understanding solutions, choosing solutions, planning an action and implementing and evaluating the action.

Difference between Groups and Teams:

Group: A group that interacts primarily to share information to make decision to help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility. Work groups have no need or opportunity to engage in collective work that requires joint effort.

Team: A group whose individual effort results in a performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs. A team gets a greater degree of individual commitment towards the common shared goal. The efforts of the team members result in more synergy and may achieve a better total performance.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         

Q14. Define conflict. State and explain different styles and strategies for conflict management.

Ans. CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Conflict management is what we’re doing when we identify and deal with conflict in a reasonable manner. To manage conflict the management Gurus say that we must develop and use skills like effective communication, problem solving, and negotiating. When we resolve issues, we need to focus on the things we need or desire as a group, and not things needed or wanted by individuals. This promotes working with each other instead of against each other.  There are some proven strategies that you can use to help resolve conflicts within your groups. The Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management in USA describes five popular styles.    

STYLE 1- COLLABORATING o Why should I collaborate? Cooperation will help everyone achieve their goals and keep relationships healthy.

o A Collaborator’s Attitude: Talking through the conflict will help us find creative ways to solve our problems where everyone is satisfied in the end. o When should I collaborate? • Everyone trust each other • No one wants total decision or resolution power • Everyone needs to have a part in the decision • Everyone involved will change their thinking as more information is available • People need to work through personal hurts and disappointments o When should I choose another method? • When you need a resolution that won’t take a lot of time and money • When some may take advantage of others’ trust

STYLE 2-COMPROMISING o Why should I compromise? Winning something while losing a little is sometimes  okay.

 o A Compromiser’s Attitude: We should all meet halfway to do what is best for the group and each of us can still get part of what we want. o When should I compromise? • No one at the table has more position or power than anyone else and everyone is equally committed to the group’s goals. • Time can be saved by agreeing on a situation that works for everyone “for now” • Achieving all of your goals are only somewhat important o When should I choose another method? • Things that are important to you may be lost in the fray • Someone’s demands are too great for the rest of the table 

STYLE 3-ACCOMODATING o Why should I accommodate? Our commonalities are more important than other issues and facing differences may hurt relationships.

o An accommodator’s attitude: I will please others by playing down how important the issue or conflict is in order to protect relationships. o When should I accommodate? • Issues not as important to you as it is to others • You know you can’t win • Everyone agreeing is the most important thing • The things people have in common are more important than their differences o When should I choose another method? • Some ideas don’t get attention • Credibility and influence can be lost 

STYLE 4-COMPETING o Why should I compete? Resolving a conflict is associated with competition and winning.

o A competitor’s attitude: I must use all of my power to win the conflict. o When should I compete? • You know you’re right • A quick decision is necessary • Strong personalities are overshadowing other people • Defending your rights or position o When should I choose another method?  • Can make conflict worse • Those on the losing end may attempt to get back at the winners 

STYLE 5-AVOIDING o Why should I avoid? Not the right time or place to address this issue.

o An avoider’s attitude: I avoid conflict by leaving, avoid, or putting off discussions. o When should I avoid? • Conflict is small and the future of a relationships is at stake • There is no time to devote to conflict resolution • Other issues are more important than the conflict • There is no chance of getting your concerns heard • One party is too emotionally involved and others can better resolve the conflict  • More information is needed o When should I choose another method? • Decisions may be made by default • Putting off or avoiding issues may make matters worse

STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICT

Methods for managing conflict: Given the right opportunity and motivation all conflict can be resolved but not always to the satisfaction of all parties. The effect of disagreement and the methods for resolution depend on how conflict is managed by the participants.

The following are some common methods that can help to effectively manage conflict.

i)                    Denial or Avoidance: With this approach, individuals attempt to reduce or get rid of the conflict by denying it exists, both parties shun each other or dodge the issue of disagreement.

ii)                   Suppression: "We all get along here", "we run a happy ship", "don't rock the boat", and "nice people don't fight", are the voices of suppression. People who use suppression play down their differences in a belief it is better to "go along to get along."

iii)                 Power or Dominance: Power is often used to settle differences. The source of power may be physical, or vested by authority or position. Power strategies, however, result in a win-lose situation. In other words, in order for somebody to gain something, somebody else has to lose something. Normally the loser will not support the final decision in the same way as the winner, and may even attempt to sabotage the decision.

iv)                Third Party Intervention: Using this strategy requires a third party that is unbiased and is not taking sides to support either party in conflict. The third party may be known or unknown to the parties involved or may even be from a different location. Some assumptions in using a third party are:

1.      The third party is trusted or respected by participants.

2.       All parties involved will accept the decision of the third party.

3.      The third party has the power or authority to rule over the decision.

4.      The third party is an expert, has knowledge or is competent to give a decision about the issue(s) in dispute.

5.      All parties believe a just and fair decision will be rendered.

v)                  Compromise or Negotiation: Compromise and negotiation are often regarded as virtues in our culture. Compromise is an agreement between parties about what each should give or get in a particular situation. "You give a little, and I'll give a little so we can meet each other halfway", is a way we have been taught to get along with others. It is believed all parties will profit from the compromise or at least have a feeling of being treated fairly. Negotiation reaches an impasse when one or all participants become set in what they are willing to give and limits have been reached. The compromise, therefore, would allow all parties to reach an agreement with which all would be somewhat satisfied or rewarded.

vi)                 Integration or Collaboration. This approach requires all parties in a conflict situation to recognize the legitimate abilities and expertise of each other in the process of resolution. This method attempts to find an acceptable solution that does not necessarily require giving and getting as in a compromised solution. The group problem solving concept is considered the optimum form of managing conflict because it encourages a common search for creative alternatives to resolve the conflict that is rewarding to all parties.

Q15. What do you mean by culture? How organisational culture is learnt. Explain the various feature and factors determining organizational culture?

Ans. ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE

Culture deals with past and current assumptions, experiences, values, attitudes, beliefs, expectations, customs etc. Culture relates to the informal aspects of organisations rather than their official elements. They focus on the values, beliefs and norms of individuals in the organization Culture is manifested by symbols and rituals rather than through the formal structure of the organization.

The values and behaviour that contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization is called organizational culture. It refers to the system of shared meaning held by the members that distinguishes one organization from other organization.

Features of Organisational Culture:

Shared meaning

Values and Norms

Behavioural Consistency

Descriptive

Organisational Philosophy

Clear Guidelines

Sense of Belongingness

Factors determining org. culture

i)                    Org. Founder:

Whatever impression founders create about the organization, it continues and develops for a long period of time.

ii)                  Corporate success & shared Experiences:

Corporate success for a long period develops a strong culture. If the members share common experience, it remains in their mind forever.

iii)                Innovation & risk taking:

Innovative and risk taking employees develop a strong culture.

iv)                Outcome rather than technique:

Organisations whose managers focus on outcome rather than technique, they develop strong culture.

v)                  Competitiveness:

Organisations whose employees are competitive are actually stronger than non-competitive.

vi)                Shared interpretation:

Organisations whose members have common perception and thinking about organizational values, norms, they can develop a strong culture.

Functions of Organisational Culture

● It distinguishes one organization from another organization. That means it creates

brand name for the organization.

● It develops a sense of identity amongst its members.

● It promotes commitment amongst employees to achieve oganisational goals.

● It develops appropriate standards for employees & holds them together to achieve

those standards.

● It provides a control mechanism for shaping the attitude & behaviour of

employees.

Transmission of organizational Culture/How is culture learnt:

● Stories:

The stories be these true or false, told to the organizational members can have a profound impact on organizational culture.

● Symbols:

Examples of symbols include the size of offices, the elegance of office furnishing etc for certain employees. The value of these symbols is that they communicate important cultural values.

● Language:

Organisations use a language in terms of specific slogan, metaphor to convey special meaning to employees. It symbolizes what the company stands for to both employees and society.

● Rituals:

Rituals such as annual function, award ceremonies etc reinforce the key values of the organization, which goal is imp, which people is important. The annual function is an example of ritual performed in an educational institution.

Q16. Define organizational change? What are the various factors affecting change in the organizations?

Ans. ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE

The way we individuals change due to age, education, change of job, illness, change in geographical area, organizations also change due to several reasons over a period of time. Change is necessary for survival and growth. Changes are constantly taking place in our environment. Changes occur outside organization that requires internal adaptation. The manager has to ensure that individual and groups in organizations, and structures, process and behaviors of subsystems must adapt to the changing external and internal environments. In effect, the manager is a change agent who facilitates changes to occur in the various subsystems of the organization needed.

Any alteration which occurs in the overall work environment of an organization is called organizational change.

FACTORS AFFECTING CHANGE:

There are both external and internal forces that result in pressure for change;

External Factors:

The external forces that create the need for change come from various sources. Some of them are

as follows:

a- Competitive Market Force: Competition is changing. The global economy means that competitors are as likely to come from across the ocean as from across town. Heightened competition also means the established organizations need to defend themselves against both traditional competitors that develop new products and services and small, entrepreneurial firms with innovative offers. Successful organizations will be the ones that can change in response to the competitor.

b- Government laws and regulations: These are frequent impetus for change. Creation of special economic zones and foreign direct investment  in  India  sparked  off  major  changes  in  the  IT   Industries,  Insurance,  and      Carmanufacturing industries. More foreign automobile industries are setting up  manufacturing plants and generating more employment opportunities in India.

c- Technology: It creates the need for change. For example, technological developments in sophisticated and extremely expensive diagnostic equipment have created significant economy of scale for hospitals and medical centers. Assembly-line technology is undergoing dramatic change as organizations replace human labor with robots. Even in the greetings card industry, electronic mail and internet have influenced the way people send greetings.

d- Labor Markets: The fluctuation in labor markets forces managers to change. For instance, the demand for webpage designers and website managers made it necessary for organizations that need those kinds of employees to change their human resources management activities to attract and retain skilled employees in the areas of greatest need.

e- Economic Changes: Economic changes affect almost all organization. The appreciation of rupee value against the US dollar affects the export prospects of knitwear products from India to America as those products cost more to Americans. But even in strong economy, uncertainties about interest rates, government budgets deficits and current exchange rates create conditions that may force organizations to change.

Internal Factors:

Internal forces can also stimulate the need for change. These internal forces tend to originate primarily from the internal operations of the organizations or from the  impact of external changes.

a- Structural factors: A structural force would be the inability to transmit important information from the top of the organization to the lower level cadre. Because of numerous layers in the hierarchy, information moves slowly from one level to the next. This could be viewed as a process or a behavioral problem involving a failure to communicate effectively.

b- Strategy: A redefinition or modification of an organization’s strategy often introduces a host of change. The strategic move of Reliance Industries in getting into retail business in urban and rural markets made them to introduce a change in the managerial approach as well as the human relations approach to gain acceptance from the different cross section of the customers.

c- OrganizationsWorkforce: In recent times, the work force composition is varied and is not very static. Its composition changes in terms of age, education, sex and so forth. In a stable organization with a large pool of seasoned executives, there might  be a need to restructure jobs in order to retain younger managers who occupy lower ranks. The compensation and benefit system might also need to be adapted to reflect the needs of an older work force.

d- Introduction of new technology: The introduction of new equipment represents another internal force for change. Employees may manufacturing industries. More foreign automobile industries are setting up manufacturing plants and generating more employment opportunities in India.

b- Technology: It creates the need for change. For example, technological developments in sophisticated and extremely expensive diagnostic equipment have created significant economy of scale for hospitals and medical centers. Assembly-line technology is undergoing dramatic change as organizations replace human labor with robots. Even in the greetings card industry, electronic mail and internet have influenced the way people send greetings.

c- Labor Markets: The fluctuation in labor markets forces managers to change. For instance, the demand for webpage designers and website managers made it necessary for organizations that need those kinds of employees to change their human resources management activities to attract and retain skilled employees in the areas of greatest need.

d- Economic Changes: Economic changes affect almost all organization. The appreciation of rupee value against the US dollar affects the export prospects of knitwear products from India to America as those products cost more to Americans. But even in strong economy, uncertainties about interest rates, government budgets deficits and current exchange rates create conditions that may force organizations to change.

Q17. What is resistance to change? How an individual overcome this resistance to change in the organizations?

Ans. RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

In planning for change, the team leaders must take into consideration the various factors on which the members exhibit their resistance to implement the change process. For example, the company wanted to install a new software program in cash counter computer terminals to facilitate the fast movement. But some employees may not respond favorably and display their refusal to cooperate by increasing absenteeism, sub-standard work, joining of union increased labor turn over etc. Resistance to change can also be a source of functional conflict. For example, resistance to a reorganization plan or a change in a product line can stimulate a healthy debate

over the merits of the idea and result in a better decision.

Resistance can be overt, implicit, immediate or deferred. It is the easiest for management to deal with resistance when it is overt and immediate such as employees strike, work slowdown etc. The greater challenge is managing resistance that is implicit or deferred. Such as loss of loyalty to the organization, loss of motivation to work, increased errors or mistakes increased absenteeism etc.

a-Individual Resistance

Individual sources of resistance to change lie in basic human characteristics such as perceptions, personalities and needs.

Habit: The team members are habituated or conditioned to do their job or activity in a particular way. When they are asked to do differently, they tend to respond to resist change. When employees are asked to move to new office building across the town, they are likely to change their routine habits like waking up ten minutes earlier, finding new parking place, adjusting to new office layout, developing new lunch time routine etc.

Security:  The team members with a high need for security are likely to resist change because it threatens their feelings of safety. When Indian Railway introduced new online booking for their reservations, employees may have similar fears.

Economic Factors: If the members feel that the new changes result in lower pay, they may likely to resist change process. Changes in jobs or established work routine can also arouse economic fears if people are concerned that they won’t be able to perform the new tasks or routines to their previous standards, especially when the pay is closely tied to productivity.

Fear of the Unknown: The cashiers or secretaries might fear the new activities due to lack of knowledge in operating the new software program. They might develop a negative attitude towards working with new programs or behave dysfunctionally if required to use them.

Employees in organizations hold the same dislike for uncertainty. For example, if  an organization introduced TQM, the production employees will have to learn statistical process control techniques. Therefore, they may develop a negative attitude towards TQM or behavior dysfunctionally if required, to use statistical techniques.

Selective Information Processing: Once the team members shape their world through their own way, they prefer to do their work based on their perceptions. If the change process demands to follow the new method, the members tend to resist. So individuals are guilty of selectively processing information in order to keep their perception intact. They hear what they want to hear. They ignore information that challenges the world they have created.

b-Organizational Resistance

Some organizations prefer to follow their routine and reluctant to venture new things or follow any new methods of doing. Government agencies want to continue doing what they have been doing for years, whether the need for their service changes or remains the same. Six major sources of organizational resistance have been identified. They are as follows:

Structural Inertia:  Organizations have built in mechanisms to produce stability.  For instance, the training and orientation programs reinforce specific role requirements and skills. Formalization provides job descriptions, rules and procedures for employees to follow. Once the routine has been established, organization is very reluctant to adapt to new changes. When an organization is confronted with the change process, the team members tend to resist.

Limited Focus of Change:  The change process is interlinked. One activity cannot be changed without affecting the others. If change is introduced in technology without considering the structural changes, the change in technology is not likely to be accepted. Organizations are made up of number of interdependent subsystems.

Group Inertia: Some times the group norm or standards could act as a constraint. For example, the union norms may dictate resistance to change process.

Threat to Expertise: The change process could threaten the expertise of team members of the groups. Once the members feel that they are forced to learn something new, they tend to resist. The introduction of decentralized personal computers, which allow managers to gain access to information directly from a company’s mainframe, is an example of a change that was strongly resisted by many information system departments in the 1980s. Because of decentralized end-user computing was a threat to the specialized skills held by those in the centralized information system departments.

Threat to Established Power Relationship: The change process can threaten long established power relationships within the organization. Due to this reason, the members can resist the change.

Threat to established resource allocation:  The group, which enjoys sizable resources,may not like to accept the change process that facilitates reduction in their budget.

OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

John Kotter and Leonard Schlesinger offered six ways of overcoming resistance to change, which are highly situation dependent. More than one of these techniques may be used in any given situations.

Education and Communication: If the logic and advantages of the change are explained early to the team members, resistance can be reduced. This can be achieved through one-to-one discussions, memos, group presentations, or reports. This tactics assumes that the source of resistance lies in misinformed or poor communication. If the team members received the fullfacts and have their misunderstanding cleared up, their resistance will subside. Once people have bought into the idea, they will implement the change. The only problem is that this could be very time consuming process, if too many people are to be communicated with.

Participation and Involvement:  Resistance to change can be reduced or eliminated by having those involved participate in the decision of the change through meetings and induction. It is difficult for individuals to resist a change decision in which they participated. Once people have had an opportunity to contribute ideas and become a part of the change process, they will be less inclined to see it fail. However, working in committees or task forces is a time consuming activity, and hence it will take a longer time to bring about changes.

Facilitation and Support: Easing the change process and providing support for those caught up in it is another way managers can deal with resistance. Retraining programs, allowing time off after a difficult period, and offering emotional support and understanding may help. This emotional support can be given through empathic listening, offering training and other types of help. Such facilitation and emotional support help individual to deal more effectively with their adjustment problems. This process can be time consuming and there is no guarantee that it will always work.

Negotiation and Agreement: It is sometimes necessary for a team leader to negotiate with potential resistance or exchange something of value for a lessening the resistance. For instance, if the resistance is from a few powerful individuals in the team, a specific reward package can be negotiated that will meet their individual needs. Though in some instances this may be the relatively easy way to gain acceptance, it is possible that this could be an expensive way of effecting changes as well. Also, if the use of this strategy becomes public knowledge, others might also want to try to negotiate before they accept the change.

Manipulation and Co-optation: The team leader seeks to ‘buy off’ the key members who are resisting by giving them an important role in the change decision. The team leader’s advice is sought, not to arrive at a better decision but to get their endorsement. Some of the co-opting tactics include selectively sharing information and consciously structuring certain types of events that would win support. This can be a quick and relatively easy and inexpensive strategy to gain support. However, the purpose will be defeated if people feel they are being manipulated.

Explicit and Implicit Coercion: The team leaders can force the members to go along with changes by threats involving loss or transfers of jobs, lack of promotion, etc. Such methods, though not uncommon, i s more difficult to gain support for future change efforts. This strategy can be particularly resorted to when changes have to be speedily enforced or when changes are of a temporary nature. Though speedy and effective in the short run, it may make people angry and resort to all kinds of mean behaviors in the long run.

LEWIN’S MODEL OF CHANGE/APPROACHES TO MANAGING ORG. CHANGE/PLANNED CHANGE

Kurt Lewin argued that successful change in organizations should follow three steps

(i)     Unfreezing the status quo

(ii)   Movement to a new state

(iii) freezing the new change to make it permanent.

Unfreezing:

It is actually the process of preparing the system for change through disconfirmation of the old practices, attitudes, tendencies, or behaviors. This is the initial phase where those involved in the change experience a need for something different and a sense of restlessness with the status quo. In essence, the feeling that the system is hurting itself badly now and desperately requires achange to survive, is sensed by all. Initiative for changes efforts are taken to overcome the pressures of both individual resistance and group conformity.

Movement to a new state:

Changing or moving is the phase where the changes that have been planned are actually initiated and carried out. Changes could relate to the mission, strategy, objectives, people, tasks, work roles, technology, structure, corporate culture, or any other aspects of the organization. Well thought out changes have to be carefully implemented with participation of the members who will be affected by the change. Changes incorporated too quickly without adequate preparation will result in resistance to change.

Refreezing:

It is the last phase of the planned change process. Refreezing ensures that the planned changes that have been introduced are working satisfactorily, that any modifications, extra considerations, or support needed for making the changes operational are attended to, and that there  is reasonable guarantee that the changes will indeed fill the gap and bring the system to the new, desired state of equilibrium. This necessarily implies that the results are monitored and evaluated, and wherever necessary corrective measures are taken up to reach the new goal. If the refreezing phase is neglected or temporarily attended to, the desired results will not ensure and the change may even be total disaster.